{"id":4973,"date":"2008-06-03T16:53:24","date_gmt":"2008-06-03T16:53:24","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/127.0.0.1:10081\/?p=4973 "},"modified":"2008-06-03T16:53:24","modified_gmt":"2008-06-03T16:53:24","slug":"4973-revision-v1","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/minzhuzhongguo.org\/?p=4973","title":{"rendered":"\u53d1\u5c55\u653f\u515a\u6c9f\u901a-\u653f\u515a\u4e0e\u6c11\u4e3b\u7684\u7406\u8bba\u548c\u5b9e\u8df5\u89c2\u70b9\uff08\u4e0b\uff09"},"content":{"rendered":"

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    \u5927\u536b•\u65af\u6c83\u68ee\uff08David Swanson\uff09\u548cPaolo Mancini\uff0c\u8fd8\u6709\u5176\u4ed6\u8bb8\u591a\u8bc4\u8bba\u5458\u90fd\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff0c\u5f53\u4ee3\u7684\u653f\u515a\u6c9f\u901a\u4e2d\u5305\u542b\u4e86\u7ade\u9009\u6d3b\u52a8\u7684\u201c\u7f8e\u56fd\u5316\u201d\uff0c\u63d0\u51fa\u8fd9\u4e00\u8fc7\u7a0b\u9020\u6210\u4e86\u8de8\u8d8a\u8bb8\u591a\u793e\u4f1a\u7684\u7c7b\u4f3c\u53d1\u5c55\u3002
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    \u8fd9\u79cd\u7ed3\u6784\u6027\u5bf9\u6bd4\u2014\u2014\u800c\u4e0d\u4ec5\u4ec5\u662f\u9075\u5faa\u5355\u4e00\u7684\u201c\u7f8e\u56fd\u201d\u6a21\u5f0f\u2014\u2014\u7684\u7ed3\u679c\u662f\uff0c\u4e0d\u540c\u793e\u4f1a\u4e2d\u7684\u653f\u515a\u6c9f\u901a\u548c\u9009\u4e3e\u6d3b\u52a8\u4ecd\u7136\u663e\u793a\u51fa\u60ca\u4eba\u7684\u4e0d\u540c\u3002\uff0845\uff09\u7531\u7535\u89c6\u652f\u914d\uff0c\u7531\u4eba\u683c\u548c\u91d1\u94b1\u9a71\u52a8\u7684\u7ade\u9009\u6d3b\u52a8\u2014\u2014\u901a\u5e38\u89c6\u4e3a\u7ade\u9009\u6d3b\u52a8\u7684\u201c\u7f8e\u56fd\u5316\u201d\u7684\u7279\u5f81\u2014\u2014\u7684\u5174\u8d77\uff0c\u5728\u8bf8\u5982\u610f\u5927\u5229\u3001\u59d4\u5185\u745e\u62c9\u548c\u4ee5\u8272\u5217\u7b49\u56fd\uff0c\u53ef\u80fd\u6bd4\u5728\u82f1\u56fd\u3001\u5fb7\u56fd\u6216\u745e\u5178\u8d70\u5f97\u66f4\u8fdc\u3002
    \u672c\u6587\u5df2\u7ecf\u5f3a\u8c03\uff0c\u66f4\u591a\u4f9d\u8d56\u5e7f\u64ad\u548c\u6280\u672f\u6e20\u9053\u4e0d\u4e00\u5b9a\u53d6\u4ee3\u4e86\u5730\u65b9\u7684\u4eba\u5458\u5bc6\u96c6\u578b\u6d3b\u52a8\uff0c\u76f8\u53cd\uff0c\u62c9\u7968\u548c\u53d1\u4f20\u5355\u7684\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4ecd\u7136\u5b58\u5728\u4e8e\u8bb8\u591a\u6709\u7740\u4f20\u7edf\u653f\u515a\u7ec4\u7ec7\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e2d\u3002\u653f\u515a\u5fd7\u613f\u8005\u548c\u8bae\u4f1a\u5019\u9009\u4eba\u4ecd\u7136\u53c2\u4e0e\u7ec4\u7ec7\u3001\u62c9\u7968\u3001\u53d1\u4f20\u5355\u548c\u52a8\u5458\u652f\u6301\u7b49\u65e5\u5e38\u6d3b\u52a8\uff0c\u5c31\u50cf\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e16\u7eaa\u4ee5\u524d\u4ed6\u4eec\u5728\u8f83\u8001\u7684\u6c11\u4e3b\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e2d\u6240\u505a\u7684\u90a3\u6837\u3002\uff0846\uff09\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u6709\u4e86\u65b0\u6280\u672f\uff0c\u4e2d\u592e\u7ade\u9009\u603b\u90e8\u73b0\u5728\u53ef\u4ee5\u66f4\u52a0\u7d27\u5bc6\u5730\u534f\u8c03\u5730\u65b9\u7684\u6d3b\u52a8\u3002\uff0847\uff09\u5373\u4f7f\u662f\u5728\u7f8e\u56fd\uff0c\u4f20\u7edf\u7684\u4eba\u5458\u5bc6\u96c6\u578b\u7ade\u9009\u6d3b\u52a8\u7684\u8bb8\u591a\u7279\u5f81\u4ecd\u7136\u5b58\u5728\uff1b\u96f6\u552e\u7684\u3001\u9762\u5bf9\u9762\u7684\u653f\u6cbb\u5728\u7231\u8377\u534e\u5dde\u653f\u515a\u6838\u5fc3\u4f1a\u8bae\u548c\u65b0\u7f55\u5e03\u4ec0\u5c14\u521d\u9009\u4e2d\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u5728\u8bb8\u591a\u5730\u65b9\u548c\u5dde\u7ea7\u7ade\u9009\u4e2d\u5bf9\u603b\u7edf\u5019\u9009\u4eba\u4ecd\u7136\u91cd\u8981\u3002\u4ee5\u540c\u6837\u7684\u65b9\u5f0f\uff0c\u5370\u5237\u5a92\u4f53\u4ecd\u7136\u662f\u653f\u6cbb\u6c9f\u901a\u7684\u91cd\u8981\u6e20\u9053\uff0c\u5c24\u5176\u662f\u5728\u6709\u9ad8\u6c34\u5e73\u7684\u62a5\u7eb8\u8bfb\u8005\u5c42\u7684\u793e\u4f1a\u4e2d\u3002
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<\/FONT><\/P>\r\n

\\\"\\\"
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    \u4eba\u9645\u6216\u201c\u76f4\u63a5\u201d\u7684\u6c9f\u901a\u5bf9\u6539\u53d8\u6001\u5ea6\u548c\u52a8\u5458\u652f\u6301\u662f\u6700\u6709\u6548\u7684\u3002
    \u4ee5\u5a92\u4f53\u4e3a\u57fa\u7840\u7684\u6216\u201c\u95f4\u63a5\u201d\u7684\u6c9f\u901a\u53ef\u4ee5\u7528\u4e8e\u5efa\u7acb\u76f4\u63a5\u4f20\u9012\u7684\u4fe1\u606f\u7684\u4fe1\u7528\u548c\u5c06\u5176\u5f71\u54cd\u6269\u5927\u5230\u66f4\u5927\u7684\u53d7\u4f17\u4e2d\u3002
    •\u62a5\u7eb8\u548c\u5370\u5237\u5a92\u4f53\u63d0\u4f9b\u7684\u4fe1\u606f\u6700\u591a\uff0c\u6700\u9002\u5408\u7528\u4e8e\u4f20\u8fbe\u590d\u6742\u7684\u4fe1\u606f\u6216\u4ecb\u7ecd\u65b0\u95ee\u9898\u3002\u4e00\u822c\u6765\u8bf4\uff0c\u9605\u8bfb\u62a5\u7eb8\u7684\u4eba\u6700\u6709\u53ef\u80fd\u79ef\u6781\u53c2\u4e0e\u653f\u6cbb\uff1b\u62a5\u7eb8\u548c\u5370\u5237\u5a92\u4f53\u7684\u9500\u91cf\u4e0e\u6295\u7968\u6709\u6b63\u76f8\u5173\u3002\u62a5\u7eb8\u5c24\u5176\u80fd\u591f\u975e\u5e38\u6709\u6548\u5730\u6539\u53d8\u610f\u89c1\u9886\u8896\u7684\u89c2\u70b9\uff0c\u501f\u6b64\u4e3a\u4eba\u9645\u6c9f\u901a\u7ade\u9009\u6d3b\u52a8\u5960\u5b9a\u57fa\u7840\u3002
    •\u7535\u89c6\u7684\u4f18\u70b9\u662f\u63d0\u4f9b\u89c6\u89c9\u56fe\u50cf\uff0c\u51e0\u4e4e\u662f\u5373\u65f6\u7684\uff0c\u800c\u4e14\u4f7f\u95ee\u9898\u4e2a\u4eba\u5316\u3002\u4f46\u662f\u7535\u89c6\u52a8\u5458\u6295\u7968\u8005\u7684\u80fd\u529b\u6709\u9650\u3002\u7535\u89c6\u65b0\u95fb\u6545\u4e8b\u901a\u5e38\u6765\u81ea\u5370\u5237\u65b0\u95fb\u6545\u4e8b\u3002
    •\u5e7f\u64ad\u53ef\u4ee5\u7528\u4e8e\u9488\u5bf9\u7279\u5b9a\u7684\u7fa4\u4f53\uff0c\u63d0\u4f9b\u5bf9\u8fd9\u4e9b\u7fa4\u4f53\u6240\u611f\u5174\u8da3\u7684\u95ee\u9898\u7684\u957f\u671f\u8ba8\u8bba\u3002\u5b83\u8fd8\u53ef\u4ee5\u5c31\u516c\u5171\u95ee\u9898\u6269\u5927\u8ba8\u8bba\u3002
    •\u4e92\u8054\u7f51\u6c9f\u901a\u88ab\u53d1\u73b0\u5c24\u5176\u6709\u52a9\u4e8e\u5df2\u7ecf\u6301\u6709\u76f8\u5bf9\u5f3a\u70c8\u7684\u89c2\u70b9\uff0c\u4f46\u6ca1\u6709\u6ce8\u610f\u5230\u5206\u4eab\u8fd9\u4e9b\u89c2\u70b9\u7684\u5176\u4ed6\u4eba\u7684\u5b64\u7acb\u4e2a\u4eba\u3002\u5b83\u8fd8\u53ef\u4ee5\u88ab\u7528\u4e8e\u5341\u5206\u6709\u6548\u5730\u7ec4\u7ec7\u8fd9\u79cd\u4eba\u3002
    \u867d\u7136\u6709\u4e9b\u4eba\u8ba4\u4e3a\u4eba\u9645\u6c9f\u901a\u5df2\u7ecf\u8fc7\u65f6\u4e86\uff0c\u4f46\u6700\u8fd1\u7684\u7814\u7a76\u6d4b\u91cf\u4e86\u7f8e\u56fd\u653f\u6cbb\u7ade\u9009\u6d3b\u52a8\u4e2d\u6295\u7968\u8005\u63a5\u89e6\u6280\u672f\u5bf9\u51fa\u6765\u6295\u7968\u7684\u4eba\u7684\u5f71\u54cd\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c\u53d1\u73b0\u6328\u95e8\u4e2a\u4eba\u63a5\u89e6\u4ecd\u7136\u662f\u201c\u9ec4\u91d1\u6807\u51c6\u201d\uff0c\u8d85\u8fc7\u4e86\u76f4\u63a5\u901a\u4fe1\u3001\u7535\u8bdd\u3001\u95e8\u94a9\u548c\u7535\u5b50\u90ae\u4ef6\u3002\u8036\u9c81\u5927\u5b66\u7684Donald P. Green\u548cAlan S. Gerber\u57281998\u81f32002\u5e74\u4e4b\u95f4\u8fdb\u884c\u4e86\u8d85\u8fc720\u9879\u4e25\u683c\u7684\u79d1\u5b66\u5b9e\u9a8c\u3002\u89c1\u300a\u8d70\u51fa\u6765\u6295\u7968\uff01\u5982\u4f55\u63d0\u9ad8\u6295\u7968\u8005\u7684\u53c2\u4e0e\u300b\uff08\u534e\u76db\u987f\u7279\u533a\uff1a\u5e03\u9c81\u91d1\u65af\u5b66\u4f1a[the Brookings Institution]\uff0c2004\u5e74\uff09\u3002
<\/FONT><\/P>\r\n


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\u9644\u5f55\uff1a\u5a92\u4f53\u81ea\u7531\u5ea6\u6d4b\u91cf\uff0c\u4f7f\u7528\u5a92\u4f53\u7684\u673a\u4f1a\u548c\u901a\u8baf\u5f55\uff08\u7565\uff09<\/FONT><\/P>\r\n

\u53c2\u8003\u6587\u732e
1. Thomas Carothers, Aiding Democracy Abroad: The Learning Curve (Washington, D.C.: The Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace, 1999).
2. Richard S. Katz, Democracy and Elections (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), ch. 4.
3. E.E. Schattschneider, Party Government: American Government in Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1942). Dag Anckar
and Carsten Anckar note, however, that a half-dozen small, independent island states are democracies without having political parties\u2014
namely, Belau (Palau), the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Tuvalu. Their size, extremely
archipelagic geography, and intense cultural resistance all contribute to an absence of political parties in these democracies. See Dag
Anckar and Carsten Anckar, \u201cDemocracies Without Parties,\u201d Comparative Political Studies 33 (March 2000): 225\u201347.
4. Stefano Bartolini and Peter Mair, \u201cChallenges to Contemporary Political Parties,\u201d in Larry Diamond and Richard Gunther, eds., Political
Parties and Democracy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001).
5. Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Free Press, 1967).
6. Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Bernard R. Berelson, and H. Gaudet, The People\u2019s Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1948); Bernard R. Berelson, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and William N. McPhee, Voting: A Study of
Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963).
7. Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960). See also V.O.
Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1964).
8. David Denver and Gordon Hands, Modern Constituency Electioneering: Local Campaigning in the 1992 General Election (London: Frank
Cass, 1997).
9. Scott C. Flanagan, Shinsaku Kohei, Ichiro Miyake, Bradley M. Richardson, and Joji Watanuki, eds., The Japanese Voter (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1991).
10. John Aldrich, Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Party Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). On
caucuses, see William G. Mayer, \u201cCaucuses: How They Work, What Difference They Make,\u201d in William G. Mayer, ed., In Pursuit of the
White House: How We Choose Our Presidential Nominees (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham House, 1995).
11. Robert Huckfeldt and John Sprague, Citizens, Politics, and Social Communications: Information and Influence in an Election Campaign
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
12. Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
13. David L. Altheide and Robert P. Snow, Media Logic (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1979); Gianpietro Mazzoleni, \u201cMedia Logic and Party
Logic in Campaign Coverage: The Italian General Election of 1983,\u201d European Journal of Communication 2 (March 1987): 81\u2013103.
14. David Swanson and Paolo Mancini, eds., Politics, Media, and Modern Democracy: An International Study of Innovations in Electoral
Campaigning and their Consequences (New York: Praeger, 1996).
15. Ian McAllister, \u201cLeaders,\u201d in Lawrence LeDuc, Richard Niemi, and Pippa Norris, eds., Comparing Democracies: Elections and Voting in
Global Perspective (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1996).
16. Fritz Plassner, Christian Scheucher, and Christian Senft, \u201cIs There a European Style of Political Marketing?\u201d in Bruce I. Newman, ed.,
The Handbook of Political Marketing (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1999).
17. Thomas Patterson, The Mass Media Election: How Americans Choose Their President (New York: Praeger, 1980); Wilson Carey McWilliams,
The Politics of Disappointment: American Elections 1976\u201394 (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham House, 1995); Larry Sabato, The Rise of Political
Consultants: New Ways of Winning Elections (New York: Basic Books, 1981); Dan Nimmo, Mediated Political Realities (New York: Longman,
1983); Frank Luntz, Candidates, Consultants and Campaigns: The Style and Substance of American Electioneering (Oxford: Blackwell,
1988); Mathew D. McCubbins, Under the Watchful Eye: Managing Presidential Campaigns in the Television Era (Washington, D.C.: CQ
Press, 1992); James Thurber and Candice J. Nelson, eds., Campaign Warriors: The Role of Political Consultants in Elections (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings, 2000); Bruce I. Newman, ed., Handbook of Political Marketing (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1999).
18. Larry Sabato, The Rise of Political Consultants; Barbara G. Salmore and Stephen A. Salmore, Candidates, Parties and Campaigns (Washington,
D.C.: CQ Press, 1989); Frank I. Luntz, Candidates, Consultants and Campaigns; John Aldrich, Why Parties?
19. Fritz Plassner, Christian Scheucher, and Christian Senft, \u201cIs there a European Style of Political Marketing?\u201d in Bruce I. Newman, ed.,
The Handbook of Political Marketing.
20. Russell J. Dalton, Scott C. Flanagan, and Paul Beck, eds., Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies: Realignment or Dealignment?
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984); Mark N. Franklin, Thomas T. Mackie, and Henry Valen, eds., Electoral Change: Responses
to Evolving Social and Attitudinal Structures in Western Nations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
21. Pippa Norris, Electoral Engineering: Voting Rules and Political Behavior (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
22. Elaine Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Democracy.com: Governance in a Networked World (Hollis, N.H.: Hollis, 1999); Richard Davis
and Diana Owen, New Media and American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); Kevin A. Hill and John E. Hughes,
Developments in Party Communications 27
Cyberpolitics: Citizen Activism in the Age of the Internet (Lanham, Md.: Rowan and Littlefield, 1998); Edward Schwartz, Netactivism:
How Citizens Use the Internet (Sebastapol, Calif.: Songline Studios, 1996); Richard Davis, The Web of Politics: The Internet\u2019s Impact on the
American Political System (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
23. C. Richard Neu, Robert H. Anderson, and Tora K. Bikson, Sending your Government a Message: E-mail Communication Between Citizens
and Government (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand, 1999). See <\/FONT>www.rand.org\/publications\/MR\/MR1095<\/FONT><\/A>.
24. P.J. Jackson, Virtual Working: Social and Organizational Dynamics (London: Routledge, 1999); J. Hagel and A.G. Armstrong, eds.,
Net.Gain: Expanding Markets through Virtual Communities (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School, 1997); T. McEachern and B.
O\u2019Keefe, Re-Wiring Business: Uniting Management and the Web (Chichester, U.K.: Wiley, 1998).
25. \u201cPost European Elections 2004 Survey,\u201d Flash Eurobarometer 162 (June 2004).
26. See <\/FONT>www.worldbank.org\/data<\/FONT><\/A>. The data for daily newspapers and radios are originally derived from UNESCO, and the information
about television sets, personal computers, and Internet hosts from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
27. W.A. Hachten, \u201cMedia Development Without Press Freedom: Lee Kuan Yew\u2019s Singapore,\u201d Journalism Quarterly 66 (Winter 1989):
822\u201327.
28. Ben Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 1997); Leo Bogart, Commercial Culture: The Media System and the
Public Interest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Robert McChesney, Rich Media, Poor Democracy: Communication Politics in
Dubious Times (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1999); Robert G. Picard, Press Concentration and Monopoly: New Perspectives on
Newspaper Ownership and Operation (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1988).
29. Robert Harmel and Kenneth Janda, \u201cAn Integrated Theory of Party Goals and Party Change,\u201d Journal of Theoretical Politics 6 (July
1994): 259\u201387; Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, eds., Party Organization: A Data Handbook (London: Sage, 1992).
30. Anders Widfeldt, \u201cParty Membership and Party Representatives,\u201d in Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Dieter Fuchs, eds., Citizens and the
State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
31. See in particular Peter Mair and Ingrid van Biezen, \u201cParty Membership in Twenty European Democracies 1980\u20132000,\u201d Party Politics 7
(January 2001): 7\u201322; Susan Scarrow, \u201cParties Without Members?\u201d in Russell J. Dalton and Martin Wattenberg, eds., Parties without
Partisans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
32. For evidence of this trend in Denmark, see also Jorgen Goul Andersen and Jens Hoff, Democracy and Citizenship in Scandinavia
(Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001).
33. Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair, \u201cChanging Models of Party Organization and Party Democracy: The Emergence of the Cartel Party,\u201d
Party Politics 1 (January 1995): 5\u201328.
34. Herbert E. Alexander and Rei Shiratori, Campaign Political Finance among the Democracies (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994). For a
useful recent comparative review, see Reginald Austin and Maja Tjernstrom, Funding of Political Parties and Election Campaigns (Stockholm:
International IDEA, 2003).
35. Ruud Koole, \u201cCadre, Catch-All or Cartel? A Comment on the Notion of the Cartel Party,\u201d Party Politics 2 (October 1996): 507\u201324.
36. Anthony Smith, \u201cMass Communications,\u201d in David Butler, Howard R. Pennimann, and Austin Ranney, eds., Democracy at the Polls: A
Comparative Study of Competitive National Elections (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1981).
37. Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha, Political Advertising in Western Democracies: Parties and Candidates on Television (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994).
38. Cees van der Eijk, \u201cThe Netherlands,\u201d in Richard Gunther and Anthony Mughan, eds., Democracy and the Media: A Comparative
Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
39. Darrell M. West, Air Wars: Television Advertising in Election Campaigns, 1952\u20131992 (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1992). See also
Lynda Lee Kaid, Dan Nimmo, and Keith R. Sanders, New Perspectives on Political Advertising (Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University
Press, 1986).
40. Reginald Austin and Maja Tjernstrom, eds., Funding of Political Parties and Election Campaigns, Table 8.
41. Pippa Norris, John Curtice, David Sanders, Margaret Scammell, and Holli Semetko, On Message: Communicating the Campaign (London:
Sage, 1999).
42. James B. Lemert, William R. Elliott, James M. Bernstein, William L. Rosenberg, and Karl J. Nestvold, News Verdicts, The Debates, and
Presidential Campaigns (New York: Praeger, 1991).
43. David Swanson and Paolo Mancini, eds., Politics, Media, and Modern Democracy: An International Study of Innovations in Electoral
Campaigning and Their Consequences.
44. Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha, Political Advertising in Western Democracies; Herbert E. Alexander and Rei Shiratori, Campaign
Political Finance Among the Democracies (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994).
45. David Butler and Austin Ranney, eds., Electioneering: A Comparative Study of Continuity and Change (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992);
Shaun Bowler and David M. Farrell, eds., Electoral Strategies and Political Marketing (New York: St. Martin\u2019s Press, 1992); Richard
Gunther and Anthony Mughan, Democracy and the Media: A Comparative Perspective.
46. David Denver and Gordon Hands, Modern Constituency Electioneering.
47. Pippa Norris, John Curtice, David Sanders, Margaret Scammell, and Holli Semetko, On Message: Communicating the Campaign .

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